Kim Ray, Ph.D.
Psychologist
Contents:
Information About Interventions
Keys to Successful Interventions
Important Reminders about Intervention Implementation
Ideas for Modification of the Environment
Implementing an Extinction Procedure
Important Reminders about Intervention Implementation
Ideas for Modification of the Environment
Implementing an Extinction Procedure
Implementing Verbal Redirection
Implementing a Time-Out Procedure
Guidelines for Effective Reinforcing
Guidelines for Effective Limit Setting
Guidelines for Effective Consequencing
Working With Adolescents
Handling Aggressive Behavior: The Crisis Wave
Preconditions for Effective Crisis Intervention
TIPS FOR PARENTS ON PARENT- TEACHER RELATIONSHIPS
Achieving Compliance
Giving Good Commands
Definitions of Important Terms
Information About Interventions
The Least Restrictive Treatment Model: .
Most Restrictive ------------------------à Restraint
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Overcorrection
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Time-Out
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Redirection
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Extinction
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Reinforcement
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Least Restrictive ------- >Modification of the Environment
Remember. . .Behavior problems likely represent skill deficits. Proactive interventions teach
behavioral skills. The effects are longer lasting and generalize to other settings.
Proactive Interventions: Reactive Interventions:
1. Modification of the environment based methods 1. Punishment-
2. Reinforcement-based methods: A. Extinction
A. Positive Reinforcement B. Redirection
B. Negative Reinforcement C. Time-Out
C. Differential Reinforcement D. Overcorrection
D. Token Economies E. Restraint
E. Self-Monitoring
F. Social Skills Training
G. Group Contingencies
H. Non-contingent reinforcement
Keys to Successful Interventions
Always follow the least restrictive treatment model. This means to start intervening by utilizing the least restrictive/least intrusive model first, and move towards more restrictive techniques, as less restrictive techniques are unsuccessful.
Remember to have realistic expectations about behavior change. Remember how diagnoses, intellectual ability, and age affect behavior.
When targeting behavior to change, be specific and operationally define the behavior. For example, "sexually inappropriate behavior" or "unmotivated behavior" is not adequate descriptors of behavior problems.
Target only one or two behaviors at a time, especially when dealing with young children. Remember that the goal of intervention is to promote learning of skills.
Skill learning is much more effective when the student (and teachers, parents, etc.) can focus, efforts on one at a time.
If less restrictive methods have failed and you are using punishment to modify behavior, remember that punishment techniques will be much more effective when paired with a reinforcement technique. In other words, the student not only learns that bad behavior is punished, they learn that good behavior is reinforced.
Base interventions on assessment findings. Assess all parameters of the problem, including student variables and teachers/parent perceptions (from interviews, rating scales, and checklists), and the antecedents and consequences related to the behavior.
Remember that to effectively change thoughts and perceptions, you must first change the student's behavior so that his or her environment will begin responding differently to him or her. If you focus only on cognitions, the world around the student remains the same and the generalizability and long-term effects of behavior change will be minimized.
The A-B-C analysis method works for all behaviors, covert (thoughts, perceptions), and overt. This method works for psychiatric as well as substance-abuse related issues.
Do not spend valuable time and effort attempting to "guess" the underlying cause of behavior. By conducting an adequate assessment, you should be able to identify those current variables that correlate with or are related to the behavior. Once those variables are. Identified, they can be manipulated to change the student's learning environment. In other words, you cannot increase compliance in a student with ODD by attempting to identify the root or cause of his anger towards and disrespect of adults. You must first teach the student compliance by shaping this behavior with reinforcement. As the student then begins to have less conflict with adults, changing his attitude towards authority will become a realistic goal.
Important Reminders about Intervention Implementation
Two rules that must be followed in implementation:
(1) Respond immediately! Immediate response to behavior (whether reinforcement
or punishment) will promote the student's relating of the behavior to the consequence.
(2) Respond Consistently! Respond consistently across time, across settings, and across
teachers. This is the most difficult thing to do, yet the most crucial component of
intervention. Failure to implement an intervention consistently will not only prohibit the
success of the intervention, it may make the behavior problem worse.
Three basic types of Positive reinforcers:
(1) Attention: Social praise (verbal) and nonverbal messages of approval (smile, pat on back, standing., or
sitting near the individual).
(2) Tangibles: Positive checks, points, tokens, stickers, access to toys/games, pizza.
(3) Activities: Spending time with teachers (taking a walk, playing a game), outings, watching movies.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Punishment:
Advantages:
(1) Usually will suppress behavior immediately.
(2) May help to protect the environment by immediately stopping a behavior.
(3) May discourage the behavior in other children if they observe a peer's behavior being punished.
Disadvantages:
(1) Reactivity - student may become emotional in anticipation of punishment and/or
aggressive in response to it.
(2) No teaching of appropriate behavior - punishing inappropriate behavior does not teach a
student appropriate behavior.
(3) Negative Modeling - punishment may show the student how to be punishing, not how to be appropriate or
reinforcing.
Ideas for Modification of the Environment
(1) Keep kids busy.
(2) All teachers/adults behave appropriately towards each other and toward students
(3) Continue to remind students of rules and consequences.
(4) Keep kids separate who often argue/fight.
(5) Pay attention to disruptions and disagreements "brewing" and separate those involved.
(6) Do not overwhelm students with too many commands.
(7) Focus on their good behavior and positive attributes rather than negative behavior and
attributes.
(8) Recognize the antecedents to inappropriate behavior in the environment and modify them
before they elicit inappropriate behaviors. This practice may reduce the need for using
consequences.
Implementing an Extinction Procedure
What is Extinction?? Extinction is a procedure in which the reinforcement that has been maintaining or increasing an inappropriate behavior is withheld entirely. A common practice of the extinction procedure is ignoring behavior that is reinforced by attention. Is much more effective when utilized with differential reinforcement.
(1) Extinction is much more effective when paired with differential reinforcement.
(2) To extinguish a behavior, the removal of reinforcement must be complete and done, so
entirely! When ignoring behavior, ignore it completely, when the inappropriate behavior
then give the student attention.
(3) Be prepared for the extinction burst! The extinction burst is another way of saying that
when you completely remove reinforcement from an inappropriate behavior that is
maintained by reinforcement, there will be an immediate increase in the frequency of the
behavior. In fact, the behavior will likely occur at its highest rate ever! Do not give I
and respond to the student during the extinction burst, or you will accidentally reinforce
a very high frequency of inappropriate behavior. After the extinction burst has passed,
he behavior will gradually decline in frequency. Remember that behavior will get worse
before it gets better.
(4) Use active ignoring/extinction to weaken these misbehaviors:
~ Whining and fussing
~ Pouting and sulking
~ Loud crying intended to "'punish" teachers
~ Loud complaining
~ Insistent begging and demanding * Mild tantrums
(5) Guidelines to Follow:
~ Briefly remove all attention from the student
~ Refuse to argue, scold or talk
~ Turn your head to avoid eye contact
~ Do not show anger in your manner or gestures
~ Act absorbed in some other activity
~ Be sure that the behavior does not allow him a material reinforcer
~ Give lots of attention and reinforcement when the inappropriate behavior stops
Implementing Verbal Redirection
(1) To appropriately redirect behavior, call the student's name, maintain eye contact, speak in
a clear, non-threatening tone. Ask/Tell the student to stop the inappropriate behavior and
suggest an appropriate behavior lie or she can engage in instead. If the behavior
continues, state to him or her why the behavior is inappropriate and state to him or her
that it the behavior continues there wilt tie a consequence of _______ (be specific).
(2) Say name with calm, low voice
If he is not responding or if it is noisy, use a loud, firm voice to get his attention.
Say something like, "Antonio, let's go over here," or ask, "Martha, "What is going on?"
or "Kiwon, tell me what is happening, or perhaps, "Tosha tell me more."
Pay attention to the following:
~ Voice tone - soothing, but not condescending.
~ Voice speed - varies with conditions, may need to be faster or slower
May need to give short, firm instructions, or say nothing until the
person has had a chance to verbally vent for a few minutes.
~ Voice volume - low, steady, or extra loud to cut through other noise or questions.
(3) Use genuine, nonjudgmental statements
Explore feelings and concerns. Your goal is to fully understand the
student's concerns and to de-escalate the situation.
Reflect, clarify, summarize the situation.
(4) Follow-up, follow-up, follow-up. If the inappropriate behavior stops, provide
reinforcement. If the inappropriate behavior continues, implement the consequence you
stated.
Nonverbal Redirection of Behaviors
a. Show a neutral face.
b. Examine the spatial distance. Either nonchalantly step out of the person's space if you are too close or,
if it would help to focus the student's attention lean in.
c. Have your arms down to your side or in front.
d. Have your hands open and relaxed; gestures should only be used in a non-threatening way to direct.
e. Look at the person, but do not stare, glare, or roll your eyes.
f. Take slow, deep, easy breaths.
Roadblocks to Verbal Redirection
~ Ordering
~ Threatening
~ Preaching
~ Lecturing (Providing Answers/Giving Advice)
~ Judging
~ Excusing
~ Diagnosing/Teaching
~ Prying
REFERENCES
Gordon, T. (1975). Effectiveness training. New York, NY: New American Library.
Phillips, G., Sutter, K., and Fream, A. (1991). Managing aggressive behavior. National Resource Center for Youth Services: University of Oklahoma.
Implementing a Time-Out Procedure
Basic Steps For Using Time-Out:
1. Select ONE target behavior on which to use time-out.
2. Pick out a boring place for time-out
3. When the Target Behavior Occurs, place the student in
timeout and use no more than 10 words.
4. Remove all attention from the student.
5. Terminate time-out ONLY after a period of quiet.
Main Points to Remember:
~ No talking or arguing with a student after placing him in time-out
~ No talking or arguing with a student before placing him in time-out
~ Use a large straight back chair for time-out, not an interesting place or comfortable chair
~ Allow the student to leave time-out ONLY after he is quiet
~ After leaving time-out, repeat the command and expect compliance
~ Actually use time-out each time the target behavior appears. DO NOT just threaten to use it.
~ When used correctly, time-out is an effective and easy method to remediate undesirable behaviors.
~ When used, incorrectly, time-out can be difficult and very ineffective.
Some variations of the time-out procedure include:
(a) time-out by turning off TV (i.e., if TV is source of problem).
(b) time-out by removing access to cards, games, toys,
(c) time-out by asking student to move away from the table for a few minutes.
(d) time-out in chair.
(e) time-out in time-out room.
(2) If there is any attention or reinforcement while in time-out, it will not be effective.
Do not talk to or argue with the student while he or she is in time-out. Prior to placing
the student in time-out, simply state, "time-out . You may get up when you
have been calm/quiet for minutes:"
(3) Time-out is most effective if the time-in area is reinforcing and the student would rather
be there. In other words, time-out may not be an appropriate intervention if the student
would prefer to be in time-out rather than the time-in environment. A student may rather
sit in the hall in time-out than sit in the classroom doing math problems.
(4) Have realistic expectations of a student's behavior while lie or she is in time-out. Expect
the student to remain in the seat and not be disruptive. Do not expect the student to be
completely quiet or not angry. Often students will misbehave in time-out to get attention.
Guidelines for Effective Reinforcing
1. Reinforce the behaviors you desire. Reinforcers might include positive statements
about the behavior, additional attention given to the person when the behavior is
demonstrated, or a simple thank you or pat on the back.
2. Assess and eliminate the reinforcer(s) for behaviors you do not desire. Sometimes
ignoring a behavior is the best way to eliminate the reinforcement of that behavior. If a
student is acting in a certain fashion (i.e., cursing), yet is not getting reinforced by you or
others to continue the behavior, he is more likely to stop the behavior or, at least, is more
motivated to stop the behavior when asked to stop. Ignoring behaviors can require quite a
bit of persistence on the part of the adult. (see extinction section)
3. The use of paradoxical challenges can sometimes lead a student to eliminate certain
behaviors. A student who is interested in the attention of a peer might be willing to
change her behavior of hitting her friend (which is inappropriate), if challenged to sit next
to the friend while using her hands to draw pictures in an art book or crochet (keeping her
hands busy, while being, physically near the friend).
Guidelines for Effective Limit Setting
1. Give student choices, usually two. Tell the student if he refuses to choose for himself, then
you will choose an option for him.
2. Say "yes" more often than "no." You can still limit the student's choices. "Yes, when you
finish your homework, you may join the basketball game." "Sure you can talk with your
friend as soon as your assignment is complete and all equipment is put away."
3. Make sure all the choices you offer the student are ones you can live with. Never
provide choices you like with choices you dislike, because the student will likely choose
the one(s) you dislike. You set both yourself and the student up for a collision.
4. Give choices only when you are willing to allow the student to experience the
consequences of those choices.
5. When the student is in danger, give only choices that can get the student out of
danger.
6. Use past successes to formulate choices or point out strengths. For example: "Last week
when you avoided the fight with Marty, you chose to tell him how angry you were, and
then you walked away without fighting."
7. How you state the choices is important. When giving choices, start your sentences using
one of the following:
"You're welcome to have________or___________"
"Feel free to pick up your stuff_______ or_________"
"Would you rather__________or______________"
"What would be best for you___________or___________"
Guidelines for Effective Consequencing
1. Responding vs. Reacting - Parents have the luxury and burden of reacting to their
student's behavior. Professionals have the responsibility of responding. Responding
involves acting in ways consistent with the overall purpose of placement. Our responses
must be viewed not as single reactions to isolated behavior, but connected to a whole
process. We are seeking behavioral change rather than simply control, because behavior
does not change when control, by itself. is used.
2. Our consequencing must make a difference and be measured against the overall question,
"How does my response to this situation contribute to the development of new skills and
behavioral change? We can spend our time attempting to correct behavior (short-term,
more often temporary results), or spend our time training students to engage in and
practice the skills they need to develop self-control.
3. A recurrence or undesired behavior does not imply that the consequence was not severe
enough. It means the process of skill development and self-control takes perhaps more
information, time, and practice. Learning new behaviors cannot be accomplished
quickly.
4. Be creative. Human behavior is sometimes difficult to understand. Taking an unusual
approach may be effective. Most of the student with whom we work, especially those
who have long learning histories, often expect us to respond in certain, predictable ways.
Offering a variation from the expected can generate new experiences and meanings.
REFERENCES
Cline, F. and Fay, J. (1990). Parenting with love and logic: Teaching children responsibility. Colorado Springs, CO: Pinon Publishing.
Durrant, M. (1993). Residential treatment: A cooperative competency-based approach to therapy and program design. New York: W. W. Norton &. Company.
OTHER RESOURCES
Goldstein. A., Sprafkin, R., Gershaw, N., and Klein, P. (1980). Skill-streaming the
adolescent: A structured learning approach to teaching prosocial skills. Champaign, IL: Research Press Company.
Goldstein, A. and Glick, B. (1987). Aggression replacement training: A comprehensive intervention for aggressive student. Champaign, IL: Research Press.
McGinnis, E. and Goldstein, A. (1984). Skill-streaming the elementary school student: A guide for teaching prosocial skills. Champaign, IL: Research Press.
Working With Adolescents
Keys to Having Realistic Expectations
1. Understand adolescent development and how development affects adolescent behavior.
2. Learn about the individual student in your care.
3. Model your behavior to match your expectations of student.
4. Adjust your expectations to better match the individual student and perhaps the group as a whole.
Keys to Avoiding the Misuse of Power
1. Be aware of your own stress level.
2. Do not use your power as a last resort to win a struggle with a student.
3. Use the following "Behavior Focus Questions" in difficult situations
a. What are you doing?
b. What are you supposed to be doing? „
c. What's going to happen if you keep doing what you're doing?
d. Do you want that to happen?
e. What are you going to do now?
4. Do not say "no" when "yes" is just as easy.
5. Analyze your own use of power.
Handling Aggressive Behavior: The Crisis Wave
Stage 1: WINDING UP - Student shows first signs of being upset.
Teachers should:
~ be supportive and calm
~ use relaxation techniques and "centering" with the student
~ ask, "What is going on?" and listen
~ remove any external sources of agitation
~ use relaxation techniques and centering with self
Stage 2: AGITATION - Student is losing control.
Teachers should:
~ give information if it is sought do not argue; teachers authority is not at issue
~ set limits if necessary
~ acknowledge that no one wants to make him do anything
Stage 3: VERBAL ABUSE - Student has lost control but is not violent.
Teachers should:
~ resist raising your voice refuse to argue
~ say little and. make your remarks to the point
~ reassure and restate directive
~ prepare yourself for possible explosion
~ get help, if needed
Stage 4: EXPLOSION - Student Is out of control and physically violent.
Teachers should:
~ stay calm and centered
~ back off and get help, if needed
~ intervene physically, if needed, to protect student or others - using blending techniques
Stage 5: LET-DOWN - Student Is exhausted.
Teachers should:
~ let student rest, if needed
~ support student's efforts to regain self-control
~ reestablish emotional contact
~ reassure all the student
~ use the opportunity to teach alternatives to violence
~ debrief teachers
~ document incident
Preconditions for Effective Crisis Intervention
1. A constrictive, philosophical base about student, emphasizing positive relationships and assuming responsibility,
is shared by teachers.
2. Treating students with respect and as people growing where they are.
3. Be prepared and have confidence in a repertoire of skills to apply in crisis
4. Provide the security, support, and tolerance for students to safely try out new and better behaviors.
5. Have realistic, fair, expectations that are open for change.
6. View behavior not as a problem but as "helping cues," or indicators where assistance is needed.
TIPS FOR PARENTS ON PARENT- TEACHER RELATIONSHIPS
(No particular order of importance)
1. Please begin each relationship with a new teacher with an open mind. No matter how many
bad (let's say less than positive) experiences you've had in the past with teachers and school
personnel don't allow it to taint your relationship with a new teacher. Learn from the less
than positive experiences. Write down what the problems were and why you think they
occurred. When the time is right, discuss these with the new teacher and ensure that
history is not repeated. Also. try not to be overly influenced by negative comments made
by other parents about the teacher. You do not really know their individual situation or why
problems occurred. Do not let it affect the relationship you have with the teacher.
2. Please enter into the relationship with a new teacher and with other school personnel with a
no adversarial attitude and maintain that attitude, if at all possible, throughout the
relationship. Even if you sense that perhaps the teacher has taken the stance of adversary or
has a hint of so-called "attitude", don't fall into that mind set. Stay the course and let her
know that you truly want an ally and not an enemy.
3. You must be able to adequately educate the teacher about your student. The best way for me
has been to have a written history about my student and I add to it every year as lie
progresses.-The teacher can gain a sense of family history and some insight into the journey
you have all been on. I don't mean give out personal details of your life, please don't do that,
just an overview is fine.
4. Please have goals in mind for the coming school year. You will discuss these types of things
in detail at the lEP meeting, but just let her know (in a broad sense) what direction you are
hoping to go and get her feedback.
5. Keep an open mind and be open to suggestions. You know that you are the biggest expert on
your student but you don't know-everything. Case Scenario: The teacher suggest trying
something that didn't work in the past or didn't work for someone else's student. Don't rush to
judgment. Everyone's student is different and something that failed in the past may now be
just the thing your student needs. My experience with my son is that he won't do something
until time is fight for him and he is ready. We have had great successes with things that had
previously failed miserably.
6. Please let her know when she is doing a good job and let her higher ups know, as well. Too
often we forget to give thanks and to give well-deserved praise.
7. If things are going well at school and you feel confident about the parent/teacher relationship,
then take a deep breath and relax a bit. If you are feeling stressed out and need a break, let
the teacher know about it and go on what I call "cruise control" for a while.
8. Let the teacher see the joy you feel for your child. It can be contagious.
WHAT MAKES TEACHERS HAPPY WITH PARENTS
~ Responding the next day to notes, request and permission slips.
~ Sending well kids to school.
~ Providing student with necessary items for school
~ Dressing student appropriately for weather.
~ Knowing student's wants as well as needs.
~ Meeting student's wants as well as needs
~ Willingness to discipline student in spite of student having a disability.
~ Informing teacher of unusual circumstances at home that might affect student's behavior at school.
~ Sharing honest and candid opinions with teacher
~ Expressing appreciation for what the teacher, school and school board are doing right.
MISTAKES TO AVOID
~ Telling someone other than teacher about parental problems with classroom, school
or school board if they involve the teacher
~ Never complimenting teacher or school system about what they are doing right
~ Remaining uninformed about student's disability.
~ Reluctance to share concerns, opinions., or insights with teacher or other school
personnel because they are the "experts".
~ Thinking student's future is someone else's responsibility.
(Becky Lee, North Lewis Elementary, New Iberia. LA)
Achieving Compliance
What is non-compliance?
Non-compliance is the failure to behave as requested by others and/or as expected by general or local standard s of social conduct. Non-compliance ranges from "passive inaction" to behavior that is "contrary to a-request. For example: A teacher asks a student to put away a game . . .
Passive inaction would be when the student remains seated, pretends he did not hear the request or is unreasonably slow to respond. Non-compliance that is contrary to a request may involve, for example, the student jumping up, yelling at the teachers person, and walking away.
Non-Compliance is learned behavior . . .
Although non-compliance is a common symptom of a serious mental disorder such as Oppositional Defiant, Disorder, non-compliance. itself does not necessarily indicate psychopathology. It indicates that a person's learning history is comprised of primarily positive consequences for being disobedient. The goal, therefore, of compliance training, is to teach a student to be compliant. In viewing non-compliance as learned behavior, following are examples of how non-compliance is learned and maintained:
1. Inadequate reinforcement for compliance (obedience goes unnoticed)
2. Reinforcement for non-compliance (attention, gets out of work)
3. Ambiguous or overly complex requests (inconsistent, unclear directives from tasks,
inconsistencies in implementation of the consequences)
4. Excessive repetition of commands or requests without compliance and reinforcement for
compliance many requests made, the student does not consistently comply, therefore little
opportunity for teachers to reinforce student for compliance)
5. A mismatch between the person's skills and the response requirement of the request
(expecting the, student to be able to follow complex commands expecting the student to
remember your request over time; expecting compliance to be a typical behavior for our
students).
Treatment of non-compliance involves . . .
The fundamental component of compliance training are, the proper presentation of requests and adequate reinforcement for compliance.
(1) Proper presentation of requests involves:
A. Obtaining student's attention (eye contact, they are not paying attention to
something else)
B. Stating requests in clear, unambiguous manner, with a level of complexity that
matches the cognitive abilities of the student
C. State requests in "do" form, not "don't" form.
D. Name the reinforcer that will be available upon compliance (John, if you-, then I will allow you to
(2) Adequate reinforcement for compliance involves:
A. During the acquisition phase, provide frequent opportunities for compliance, and
reinforce continually (praise and tangibles and/or privileges)
B. During the maintenance phase, start to fade-out tangibles first, then gradually fade
praise to a consistent but less frequent rate
When non-compliance is maintained by attention . . .
When a student is being disobedient because he is acquiring much attention from teachers and peers, then the method of treatment for this type of non-compliance is extinction. Extinction involves controlling the amount of attention the student receives for non-compliance and providing a large amount of attention when the student is compliant. One way to control attention is to "wait-out" the student until he makes even- a small move towards complying and then praising his efforts. A second way to control attention is to give the student a brief time-out (from reinforcement). Time-out should isolate the student and therefore decrease his access to attention.
When non-compliance persists because it provides the student access to reinforcing activities . . .
An example of this would be the young student who is disobedient in the classroom in order to be placed in time-out outside the classroom, avoid school work, and enjoy talking to people in the hall. If you have identified that being in time-out is reinforcing to the student because he gets a break from school work, then use a "break" as a reinforcer. Make access to a "break" contingent upon being obedient in the classroom.
When non-compliance persists because it is a learned way to avoid/escape something...
(1) Utilize the behavioral momentum technique (3-5 high probability commands, 1 low
probability command, 3-5 high probability commands, 1 low probability command, and so on)
(2) Gradually increase the requirements for reinforcement (the student is required to sit in chair
for longer and longer periods of time in order to receive reinforcement)
(3) Prevent escape by using physical guidance
(4) Decrease the aversiveness of the request/task by strongly rewarding compliance.
Important Reminders about compliance training. . .
Make requests in "do" form, not "don't" form.
Compliance is learned in very small, broken down steps.
Have realistic expectations, it is a skill to be learned.
Be consistent across teachers, situation, and time of day.
Behavioral momentum is the best way to train compliance. It is sometimes the only effective
technique than can be used with large, severely non-compliant
students.
Shaping Behaviors
Step 1: Select the target behavior
Step 2: Select the Initial behavior that The student current performs and that resembles the target
behavior in some way
Step 3: Select powerful reinforcers with which to reinforce the target behavior
Step 4: Determine successive approximations or small steps of the target behavior
Step 5: Reinforce the initial behavior until it occurs frequently
Tips
~ Reinforce successive approximations of the target behavior each time they occur
~ Reinforce the target behavior each time it occurs
~ Decrease the reinforcement of the target behavior to a less frequent schedule of reinforcement.
Teaching a new skill will likely be most effective by providing The student structured opportunities to learn and practice. Specifically, the structured training sessions should involve providing a model of appropriate skill; a visual (rather than verbal) prompt of behavioral expectations (avoid presenting. these using fragmented methods); providing reinforcement when the new skill is attempted or properly demonstrated and; providing opportunities to generalize the newly learned skill to other settings. if The student has difficulty displaying the new skill in either a structured learning session or in the generalization sessions, provide the visual prompt and physically prompt (hand-over-hand) when necessary.
"Wait"
Target behavior- Waiting defined as standing or sitting in place with hands by side for
determined amount of time
First step is to determine physical cue (e.g., hand placed upright such as in a stopping motion) that will be used to signal The student to the correct response. This cue/prompt will gradually be faded out as he begins to respond correctly without the prompt.
1. During a 10-minute practice session, place a preferred activity or preferred tangible item
on the table in front of The student and ask him to "wait" to begin. You will want to be
sure and pair the word "wait" with the physical cue that you decided upon. If he waits for
approximately 3-5 seconds, (you determine the initial time based on his present ability
wait) present the activity and/or allow him to access the preferred item for approximately
1-2 minutes, Remove the task or present another item, issue the command of "wait" and
repeat the above steps until the 10-minute practice session is. over.
2. Overall compliance is rewarded with praise and a preferred item when the 10- minute
session is over.
3. Noncompliance is ignored. If the student has difficulty waiting during the training
session and grabs at the preferred activity or item, you will want to remove the item from
him, place it back on the table in front of him, and reissue the command with the physical
prompt/cue. It is important not to argue or try to explain to him why he needs to wait,
rather simply repeat the instruction with the cue and reinstate the training session.
4, In the case where the student does not have the necessary skill to perform the behavior,
the behavior is modeled and he may be physically guided through the behavior or
successive approximations may be reinforced (by reinforcing short periods of waiting first
and then gradually stretch the time requirement for him to receive reinforcement).
5. Gradually fade out (decrease) your assistance by first gradually reducing the amount of
physical assistance you provide. Next, gradually reduce the amount and frequency of
visual cues and prompts you provide. Finally, fade the verbal instructions for each step.
When the program is complete The student should be able to wait independently when you give the one instruction, "The student wait".
Giving Good Commands
This sheet is designed to provide tips on how to give good, clear, age-appropriate commands and
then to provide consistent consequences for compliance and noncompliance to those commands.
Good Commands Have Four Characteristics:
~ They are given one at a time rather than in a string.
~ They are stated in a way that the student knows what behavior is expected (e.g.,
instead of saying "be good" specify what is meant by "good").
~ They ask the student to do something that the student is capable of doing.
~ They are not questions or suggestions.
Steps for Success
1. Move close to the student.
2. Have a stern facial expression.
3. Say his or her name.
3. Get and maintain eye contact.
4. Use a firm tone of voice.
5. Give a direct, simple, and clear command.
6. "Back up" your command if necessary.
Definitions of Important Terms
Consequence: An event that occurs following a behavior that affects the
future occurrence of the behavior. Behavior is a function of its
consequence. There are two basic types of consequences,
reinforcing consequences and punishing consequences
Antecedent: The first element that occurs in the behavior cycle. An
antecedent is the event (or object) that immediately precedes
the behavior. Antecedents can be physical objects or activities
that set the occasion for a behavior to occur. Knowing the
relationship between an antecedent and a behavior is very
important when designing an intervention.
Modification of
the Environment: Because there are cues or stimuli in the environment that
often "set the occasion" for inappropriate behavior to occur, one
method of modifying behavior is to create an environment in
which it is "easy to be good." This involves assessing and
identifying those antecedent conditions that often precede
inappropriate behavior. Identifying antecedents and altering
them to enable to student to be good, is referred to as
antecedent management
Reinforcement: Any event that maintains or increases the future
occurrence of a behavior that it follows. To be reinforcing,
the event must be something the individual likes and responds to.
There are two types of reinforcement:
A. Positive - The application of something positive that increases
behavior (i.e., attention, tokens, activities).
B. Negative - The removal of something negative that increases behavior
(i.e., no homework, no chores).
Punishment: Any event that decreases the probability that a behavior will
occur again in the future. To be punishing, the event must be
something that the individual does not like, which decreases
his or her responding. There are many disadvantages to
punishment. It should be utilized only after less restrictive
interventions have been attempted
Operational
Definition: A description of a problem behavior that uses language that
is clear, descriptive, and specific to the individual. Any reader
of the definition can identify "who, what, where, when, and
"why" about the behavior. The definition is written in such
descriptive language that a person unfamiliar with the student
or the behavior could identify it, quantify it, and measure it.
Differential
Reinforcement: The reinforcement of appropriate behavior "other than" or that
is "incompatible with inappropriate behavior. The goal of this
proactive intervention is to strengthen the occurrence of
appropriate behavior by reinforcing it. This intervention is very
effective, especially when paired with extinction (complete
removal of reinforcement for the inappropriate behavior).
Redirection: A method of intervention that involves asking or telling the
student to stop the inappropriate behavior, orienting them to
appropriate behavior, and warning them of the consequences
for not redirecting their inappropriate behavior to appropriate
behavior.
Extinction: A procedure in which the reinforcement that has been
maintaining or increasing an inappropriate behavior is withheld
entirely. A common practice of the extinction procedure is
ignoring behavior that is reinforced by attention. Is much more
effective when utilized with differential reinforcement
Time-Out: Positive reinforcement is withdrawn for a specified period of
time following inappropriate behavior. Time-out can be sitting
in seclusion in a chair, or removing reinforcement by taking
away a preferred toy, or turning off the television.
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